Further, 3D-printed personalized models can be used to optimize cardiac CT imaging protocols with the aim of reducing radiation exposure to patients. Patient-specific 3D printed models can enhance medical and patient education and understanding of complex anatomy and pathology by demonstrating realistic spatial relationships in various cardiovascular diseases, planning or simulating complex cardiovascular procedures, and training or guiding junior or inexperienced doctors to perform cardiovascular interventional procedures so that their confidence or skills will be improved. Increasing evidence has shown that the use of 3D printing in cardiovascular disease has overcome limitations that are inherent in the current image visualizations, thus playing an important role in many aspects, from education to clinical practice. The use of 3D printed models in maxillofacial and orthopedics is well-explored in the literature, and its value in cardiovascular disease is showing great promise and potential to change the current practice. With the generation of high-quality and highly accurate 3D printed models, the applications have been extended to various clinical domains, with 3D printed models serving as a valuable additional tool to enhance diagnosis, surgical planning, and treatment strategies, with eventual improvements in patient outcomes.

Patient-specific 3D printed models based on imaging datasets, most commonly using computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), have been proven to replicate anatomy and pathology with high accuracy when compared to the original source data ( Figure 1). Three-dimensional (3D) printing has become an increasingly used tool in medicine, with the literature documenting its applications from the education of medical students and healthcare professionals to assisting clinical decision-making such as pre-surgical planning and simulation or intraoperative guidance and enhancing doctor-to-patient communication.

Osirix lite 3d printing